1.       Set induction 
2.       Use of examples 
3.       Stimulus variation (variety and variation)
4.       Planned repetition 
5.       Non-verbal communication 
6.       Questioning skills 
7.       Closure  
Set Induction 
1.       Set induction is a deliberately planned action by the teacher to attract students’ attention, get them really set or ready, stimulate their interest, motivate them for duty ahead, make them eager, trigger off their curiosity and induce them to attend to the lesson.

When are Students Set Induced 
          According to Amajirionwu (1985) situations when set should be induced could be itemized as follows: 
(a)     At the start of the lesson 
(b)     At the start of a new stage in the lesson content 
(c)     When changing to a new idea in a lesson or at the lesson’s development 
(d)   Before a discussion 
(e)     Before a question and answer period  
(f)      When assigning home work
(g)     Before hearing a group or panel discussion 
(h)     Before students reports of observations, investigations or studies 
(i)      When assigning a project to an individual student 
(j)      Before films and radio programmes    

          One can easily see from the above catalogue of situations that set induction can be used at the beginning of an activity or at the middle of such an activity or when there is a change of idea in the activity. At these stages, there is a need to provide a new or modified background for the activity and persons concerned ought to be fully aware and ready.

Ways in which teachers set induce their students    
Ways by which teachers can induce set are many. Examples of such ways are given below 
(a)     Teachers can induce set through their initial and varying actions and words; 
i.        The class is called to order
ii.       Let us pray, boys and girls 
iii.     Good morning, good afternoon, good evening students as the case may be     
iv.      Observing students in silence 
v.       Asking funny or probing questions 
vi.      Making educative or touching remarks 
(b)     Through the use of instructional materials. Various teaching aids which students can see, touch or feel, hear or if possible smell and taste can be shown to them. Such materials can attract students’ attention and increase their curiosity.

(c)     Creative questions can be used to set induce students. Creative question make students think deeply, hold their attention and get them involved in the lesson.  
          Set induction if properly carried out contributes a lot to the success of any lesson. It injects meaning into the lesson and serves as the foundation upon which every other part of the lesson is built. 

2.       Stimulus Variation (Variety, Variation) 
          Human nature requires variety or variation hence the adage. Variation is the spice of life. We are quite aware of the fact that many people like pounded yam with egwusi soup. But if such a menu is served in about 5 or 6 continuous meals, the eater loses appetite and interest and wants a change. The same is true of classroom situations and activities. Stimulus variation or variation or variety as teaching technique helps the teacher to reduce boredom in the classroom. It is used to break monotony, avert in-attention or boredom and rekindle interests,  heighten awareness, stimulate and energize students to focus their attention on the lesson. The learner usually learns through one or a combination of such senses as sight, hearing, touch, taste, feeling of smell. Each of these senses needs to be stimulated through the use of different methods and different teaching materials so as to sustain interest and attention of the learner. The most important message in variety and variation is that whichever sense we want to sensitize, we should vary our mode of sensitization so as to reduce boredom and increase interest and attention of learners to ensure a more effective learning.


Sources of Stimulus Variation         
(a)     Body movement and gestures: different uses of the eye-facial expressions. 
(b)     Use of different teaching aids and methods to induce learners active participation in the lesson.  
(c)     Demonstrations with already prepared pictures or diagrams beautifully drawn and decorated on cardboard sheets 
(d)     Demonstration with real objects wherever possible so that children can see and touch them and become actively involved in the lesson.
(e)     Use of asides, jokes, riddles, signs, nursery rhymes, proverbs, etc.
(f)      Making use of international silence when there is unnecessary noise that depicts boredom. Learners attention is drawn to the teacher to find why there is such silence.
(g)     Asking funny questions or making funny statements:- 
          He does not eat rats but he uses his teeth to divide them.
          It seems you are filled with new wine.
          Is noise making the best of food?

3.       Use of Examples      
          Examples are used to bring home the lesson to the learners. That s to help learners clarify facts issues and problems in order to achieve better understanding of them. In fact examples help to concretize the lesson, improve understanding and acceptance. Examples used in a lesson help a learner associate what he is familiar with to what is unfamiliar. Examples have educative effect when.
(a)     The teacher goes from particular to general such as stating the concept to be learnt and then giving examples that will illustrate, explain and clarify the idea in the concept.
(b)     The teacher goes from general to particular such as beginning with examples explaining a concept to be learnt and then leading the students to generalize or infer from the examples. Whichever way that is used what is very important is to see that the chosen examples are related to the main idea of the concept. 
  

(i)        Verbal illustration like stories, parables (Jesus Christ used parables copiously) analogies, anecdotes, morals.
(ii)       Practical illustrations like dramatization, demonstration, experiments 
(iii)     Printed illustrations like books, pamphlets, newspapers, magazines, periodicals     
(iv)      Real life illustrations like objects, specimens, diagrams, models, pictures, etc. 

Remember: An example should have direct relationship with the concept and the main idea it portrays. 

4.         Planned Repetition  
Planned repetition is an important teaching technique provided it is skillfully used. There are four types of planned repetition:-
i.          Simple Repetition 
            This type f repetition occurs immediately after presenting a point or an idea in order to emphasize the point or an idea (for more emphasis and better internalization) new words, concepts, formulae, and demonstration of the use of a new device are repeated. 
ii          Spaced Repetition   
            Spaced repetition occurs when a major point or principle is repeated at different intervals during the lesson. In spaced repetition, key words, ideas, concepts, formulae are internalizing them. Spaced repetition is an invaluable teaching technique because it reminds the learners about the major or salient points discussed during the course of the lesson.
iii        Cumulative Repetition      
            Cumulative repetition happens when major points in a lesson are collectively and sequentially repeated particularly at different stages of the lesson. Cumulative repletion of most salient points of the lesson is usually made when preparing to switch over to another aspect of the lesson or when introducing a more complicated step in the topic under presentation. The purpose of making cumulative repetition is to help learners make logical connections between one stage of the lesson and another for better comprehension, retention and recall. 

iv         Massed Repetition              
This type of repetition is made when all the major points of the lesson are repeated. Such repetition is made at the end of a lesson by way of summary. The purpose is to ensure mastery of the lesson. Planed repetition if skillfully handled by competent teaches, becomes a very important teaching technique. 


5.         Non-verbal Communication    
            Apart from the usual verbal communication undertake by the teacher in the art of teaching, non-verbal communication which is the communication we make without talking is an important teaching technique. This type of communication simply makes use of signals. These signals are called non-verbal cues or gestures. To make non-verbal communication in the classroom we make use of all the parts of the body from the head to the toe. 
            The way any part of the body is positioned or moved conveys the message. The head movements, the arm-band-finger movement, the mouth and throat movement and the entire body posture and motion can indicate clearly whether there is a positive or negative state. For instance pouting, frowning and stamping of feet on the ground show the children that what they are doing at the material time does not help the progress of the lesson and therefore should be stopped. We all are aware of the statement that action speaks louder than words. That is why non-verbal gestures sometimes produce stronger and more lasting effects on learners than spoken words. Non-verbal communication is therefore a very powerful tool in teaching.

6.         Questioning Skills  
            Questions are used in the classroom lessons to stimulate and direct learning and to provide feedback.

Types of Questions          
(i)        Lower Order Questions:
            Lower order questions test the lowest level of thinking-recall or memorized facts or information. Such questions start with what, when, where, how many, e.g what is the capital of Nigeria? When did Nigeria become independent? Where is your school bag? How many exercise books have you?

(ii)       Middle Order Questions  
            Middle order question tests more than recall. Middle order questions requires the respondent to apply what has been known to new situation. Examples: what will happen if population explosion in Nigeria continues unchecked? Why is a spider not called an insect? Why must we protect our pituitary gland? 

(iii)     Higher Order Question   
            Higher order questions make more demands on the thinking faculty of the students. They are thought provoking and require learners to infer, compare, contrast, discuss, argue, evaluate and solve questions. Teachers must endeavour to ask higher order questions in order to enable students think and solve questions.
Examples: Discuss the effect of oil glut in Nigeria.
Compare the situation in Nigeria when oil was booming and he situation now when oil is glutting. 
What do you think would have happened if there was no civil war in Nigeria?
(iv)      Probing Questions           
            Probing questions are asked in order to seek further clarification or elaboration based on the initial answer. Lawyers are advocates of probing questions. In order to establish their cases or outmaneuver their opponents. Teachers in like manner should ask their students probing questions in order to defend their initial answers. 
Examples:
Why do you say that lion are carnivorous animals? 
Why do you say that some species of cattle cannot be reared in southern Nigeria?

(v)       Divergent or Creative Questions  
            Divergent questions are asked to test man’s highest level of thinking and imagination. Divergent questions are usually open ended questions.
Example:
Students who work patently and diligently often… 
The inhabitants of a nation that want greatness are expected to…